Air Pollution and Control Measures: A Review
Abstract
Air pollution receives one of prime interest in Pakistan during
the last decade, because of rapid increase in population growth,
industrialization and urbanization, along with a great rise in energy use and
motorization. As a result, a considerable increase has taken place in the types
and number of emission sources of a variety of air pollutants. However, because
of the shortage of air quality control capabilities, the country is experiencing
from worsening of air quality. Verification from different governmental
organizations and international bodies has pointed out that air pollution is a
remarkable risk to the environment, health of the population and standard of
life. Air pollutants produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), which skeptically
affect biochemical processes of plants and decrease their tolerance ability to
other stresses also. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the
main diseases induced by air pollution on global level. Government has taken
positive action toward air quality administration in the form of the Pakistan
Clean Air Program and
has presently initiated a small number of continuous monitoring stations.
Despite that standards for ambient air quality have not still been ordered.
This paper reviews all of the workable measures being accessible on the control
of criteria air pollutants: nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter PM,
carbon monoxide, lead and sulfur dioxide.
Air pollution can be controlled by using a number of
technical and management options and financial inducement counting
better traffic flow and transport management /
planning in the urban areas, change of technology counting fuel substitution
& transformation to less
polluted fuels (low Lead/Sulfur fuels, CNG), and using management tools for
effective administration of laws relating control on emissions and fuel contamination, enhancing inspection of vehicle
and sustenance and transport planning.
Key words Pakistan,
particulate matter, criteria air pollutants
1. Introduction
Asian
countries have undergone rapid growth in development and urbanization together
with motorization and energy use.(Bruce, Perez-Padilla et al. 2000)
The region have also undergone notable rise in types and numbers of our
pollutant emersion sources. High industrial activity, increasing population and
increasing of motor vehicle are causing considerable environmental effect in
the region(C.A. Brebbia and Wadhawa 2004).
As a result of this air pollution has become as a sufficient threat to the environment,
quality of life, population health in Asia, especially in South Asia, where our
pollution control strategies and technologies are not always being adopted.(Ejaz, M.Shahid et al. 2012)
A
number of scientific journals on air pollution have been reviewed which shows that
poor our quality is playing havoc with population health in the region (who
2002). Urban air pollution is responsible for 865000 premature deaths every
year and nearly 60% of these deaths occur in Asia (A. Aziz, I.U. Bajwa et al. 2013).
Elevated concentration of pollutants have been compared in various countries of
Asia and particular matters in found to be pollutant of concern in most countries
studies on elevated our quality have shown that Karachi has emerged as one of
the mega city with highest multi pollutant which takes into account that
combined level of three WHO criteria pollutant
(So2, TSP and NO2)(I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2009).
Karachi one of mega cities of Pakistan is the most polluted city with regard to
TSP and is no fourth position on the MPI based ranking. This clearly shows the
seriousness of air pollution in Pakistan. Pakistan is the most urbanized
country in the south Asia with nearly 35% of population in towns and cities.(Ahmad, Q.I. et al. 2008)
Many Government and international organization have shown that suspended
particulate, indoor air pollution, industrial pollution and rapid growth in
traffic trends are the key sources of air pollution in Pakistan. An average
rate in excess of 14% have occurred in motor vehicles over last 20 years.(Awan 2011)
The mass-transit system in centers of Pakistan is very poor and has major role
in worsening of urban air quality. In Lahore cases of chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease is in sharp rise. The impact of road transport and its impact
on health in Pakistan have reviewed and it is pointed that there is no approved
transport policy which resulted in over increasing air pollution in Pakistan.
Being part of the five-year plane for
2010-15 the Pakistani government published the Pakistan Clean Air Programe
(PCAP) for enhancing ambient air quality. But the little has actually been done
and current air quality monitoring framework and facilities are totally
inappropriate in scale, technical capacity and operational methods. (Bruce, Perez-Padilla et al. 2000)
The Pakistan
economic survey report stated that Pakistan is suffering from deterioration of
air quality due to absence of public transport, increasing population growth
and a large increase in private vehicles. The Pakistan Strategic Country
Environmental Assessment World Bank Report identified particulate pollution as
a severe environment concern and responsible for nearly 22000 premature deaths
among adult and 700 deaths among children(Munir H.Shah and N.Shaheen: . 2008
2008).
This report
identified vehicular emissions, industrial pollution and municipal source of
particulate pollution. This review is an attempt to collect all the existing
information on air quality in Pakistan and mainly concentrates on control of
air pollutions studies published in both scientific Journals and by the
Pakistani Government. This review concentrated on six criteria pollutants:
Nitrogen dioxide, Sulfur dioxide, Ozone, Carbon monoxide and Lead. In addition
various pollution sources and details of chemical composition of PM are briefly
discussed.
In Europe, America
and various Asian countries, there are ambient air quality standards. But in
Pakistan, there are no ambient air quality standards.In absence of such
standards, a comparison of air quality has made with WHO air quality guidelines
which not only insight study of air pollutant but also strategies to overcome
air pollution.(Awan 2011)
2. Pakistan
2.1. Geography
Pakistan is in the north-western part of the South Asian
subcontinent positioned between 23° 35′ to 37° 05 North and 60° 50 to 77° 50’ East. It has an area of
796,095 km².The border of Pakistan has Iran on the west,
Afghanistan and Iran to the northwest, India to the east, and the Arabian Sea
to the south. (Fig. 1)
It has four provinces which are Sindh, Punjab, Balochistan, and North West
Frontier Province,. There are three major geographic areas in Pakistan : the
Northern Highlands; the Balochistan
Plateau, and the Indus River
plain. Pakistan has an agricultural economy due to a network of canals
facilitating major parts of its cultivated land. Pakistan lies in the temperate
zone.
 |
Fig.1 Political map of pakistan |
2.2. Population
The
population of Pakistan is growing rapidly .Today the estimated Pakistan
population is 188.2 million making it the sixth most populated country of
Pakistan.This population explosion with increasing poverty together with
urbanization and industrialization has great pressure on air quality
3. Air Quality Measurements
3.1. Particulate Matter
WHO guidelines
PM2.5
10µg/m3
annual mean
25µg/m3
24-h mean
PM10
20µg/m3
annual mean
50µg/m3
24-h mean
In
Pakistan the first reported particulate matter was recorded at a suburban
residential and commercial city center site in Lahore under Global
Environmental Monitoring system (GEMS) at the commercial city center, the
annual mean level of SPM was nearly 332µg/m3 and at suburban residential a concentration of
749-690µg/m3 was reported(I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2010).
This study was extended to other cities. The annual mean SPM concentration in
Karachi was found to be 239µg/m3 and increase consistently with
levels of 265µg/m3, 275µg/m3 and 328µg/m3
respectively ( by Space and Atmospheric Research Center). The studies have shown that average daily TSP
concentration at Karachi in the range 627-928µg/m3 and levels of TSP
at Islamabad were 428-998µg/m3. The Figure shows the 48-h average of
PM10 for six cities of Pakistan(I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2010).
The investigation have shown
that TSP and its chemical composition in industrial areas were more than double
than that of residential areas. Higher levels of PM are found during summer
than winter and monsoon. SPM/PM10/PM2.5 are generated mainly
due to vehicular and natural source(Lodhi, B. Ghauri et al. 2009).
These cause air quality to decline and increase respiratory diseases. In Quetta,
trucks emitted the highest quantity of smoke followed by rickshaw, buses and
wagons. Recently government has tried to overcome the high concentration on PM
by emphasizing on the use of CNG rather than petrole or diesel(Zafar Fatmi, Asma Rahman et al. 2010).
Despite to this, the present 24-h mean level of PM in various cities are
atleast three to five times higher than WHO guidelines of 50µg/m3 as
a 24-h mean comparison with other cities in the world. Investigation have shown
that Karachi is the most polluted city with respect to TSP. GMAPS is an attempt
by World bank to tackle the lack of monitoring information for observing PM
levels in world cities(ILYAS 2007).
 |
| Fig:1 Concentration of TSP and PM10 in different cities of Pakistan |
3.2. Sulfur dioxide
WHO guidelines
24µg/m3
24-h mean
500µg/m3
10-min mean
Measurements
by GEMS from Lahore at a suburban residential area showed a level of 40µg/m3
and at city center, a level of 49µg/m3. Later studies reported a
level of SO2 as 67-134µg/m3 in city center and a level of
25-67µg/m3 within Karachi metropolitan area (WHO/UNEP)(A. Aziz, I.U. Bajwa et al. 2013).
At Port Qasim (Karachi) SO2 level was found to be 6.3µg/m3.
The highest level of SO2 occurred in Lahore (115µg/m3 )
followed by Rawalpindi (nearly 8.6µg/m3) and Islamabad (nearly 73.4µ/m3
;Pak-EPA/JICA) by Pakistan Environmental
Protection Agency. The main sources of SO2 are industrial process
power generation plants, and diesel-fueled vehicles. The current levels of SO2
in different cities are three to many times higher than WHO air quality
guidelines value which is 24µg/m3 for 24-h(Ejaz, M.Shahid et al. 2012).
Fig:2 48-h SO2 concentration
in various cities of Pakistan (SUPARCO)
3.3. Ozone
WHO guidelines
100µg/m3
8-h mean
The
48-h mean concentration of ozone was highest in Karachi (50µg/m3)
followed by Quetta (48µg/m3), Peshawar (46µg/m3) Lahore
(44µg/m3) Islamabad (36µg/m3) according to Ghauri et al.
(2007). Peak concentration occurred in summer and maximum levels were generally
found in the afternoon(I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2010).
Ambient level of ozone
were found according to WHO standards. But there are risks that levels could
increase due to increasing NO2 emission by vehicles.
Fig:3 O3 level
in various cities of Pakistan (source: SUPARC0)
3.4. Carbon monoxide
The concentration of
CO in Lahore, Rawalpindi, and Islamabad were reported to be 3.3 ,2.3, and 1.9
respectively by EPA (Pak-EPA/GICA 2001). In Karachi , the highest concentration
of CO in industrial area followed by down town and residential area. At Port
Qasim levels were slightly higher(N.Z. Janjua, B. Mahmood et al. 2012).
CO levels have been
shown large contrast within different part of the country, but generally higher
concentrations were recorded to busy urban streets.(Ejaz, M.Shahid et al. 2012)
The poor transit system is responsible for 20-25% of the excess of CO in
Lahore. Almost 49,000 tonnes of solid waste produced each day, most of which
disposed of and then burnt again increasing CO level (World Bank 2014).
Fig:4 CO2
Emissions(source: SUPARCO)
3.5. Nitrogen dioxide
WHO guidelines
40µg/m3
annual mean
200µg/m3
1-h mean
In
a report (WHO/UNEP 1992) daily average concentration of NO2 in
Karachi was 38-545µg/m3. In another report (Pak-EPA/JICA 2001) , the
concentration of NO2 and NOX in Lahore, Rawalpindi and
Islamabad were 165.4,293.3; 129.7,140; and 178.6, 280µg/m3
respectively(Chun Chen and Bin Zhao 2011).
The studies have shown that maximum level of NO2 occurred at an
industrial site (13µg/m3) and lower concentration at residential
site (2.6µg/m3)(A. Aziz, I.U. Bajwa et al. 2013).
Recently,
Pak-EPA reported NO2 as the second most important air pollutant in Pakistan
by conducting a study in five major cities (Karachi, Lahore, Quetta, Peshawar, Islamabad).
Karachi and Lahore has an average concentration of nearly 76µg/m3
followed by Quetta (69µg/m3), Peshawar (47µg/m3) and
Islamabad (30µg/m3). Studies have shown that concentrations of NOX
are increasing due to CNG vehicles. The current levels are higher than
WHO air quality guidelines. (I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2011)
Fig:5
NOX concentration in various cities of Pakistan (SUPARCO)
3.6. Lead
It
is approximated that 392 metric tons/year of Pb is liberated into the
atmosphere. In 2001, the Pakistani government had forced all the refineries to
remove lead from petrol.(Z. Ali, S. Akhtar Ali Shah et al.
2012)
The reported 48-h concentration in Quetta, Lahore, Karachi, Peshawar and were
in the range of 2-5µg/m3. The recent survey showed a decrease in
level of Pb in air since the removal of lead from petrol. However, despite the difference
in documented concentrations, the preset levels are still many times higher
than WHO standards.
3.7. Other pollutants
During
evaluation of particulates matter, a nearly of metallic components (e. g Na, Pb,
FE, Cd, Co, Sn, Hg, carbon block organ carbon, BR and Cl) were also determined emission from coal and
oil composition, industrial process, Biomass burning and wind-blown soil were
the main causes.(I. Colbeck, Z. Ahmad Nasir et al.
2011)
The
number of our pollution monitoring campaigns has increased with in the years.
In both Karachi and Lahore monitoring stations with two sites were established
in March 2007 and one site in Quetta, Islamabad and Peshawar. These monitoring
sites measure particulate matter, hydrocarbons, 03, SO, CO, and No2.
4. Impacts of air pollution
PM
causes premature deaths in adults and 700 in children annually (Pakistan EPA/
World Back 2006)
In
terms of annual disability life years (DALYS) lost mortality estimated due to
respiratory symptoms. The studies have shown that outdoors were pollution is
carcinogenic to humans (WHO/IAQRCO 2013) with PM especially cancer of lung. Outdoor
air pollution in both cities and rural areas caused 3.7 million premature
deaths per year in 2012.Main cause cardio vascular and respiratory disease and
cancers(Andersen, Hvidberg et al. 2011; J 2012).
The
“winter fog” phenomenon in Pakistan a cocktail of toxic gases and particulates has
severs effect on health. 30-40% die of asthma. 20-30% of all respiratory
diseases. Approximately 16-28 million people out of which nearly 40%
of total urban population in Pakistan are exposed to this “fog” and have health
complications (Pakistan-EPA 2010-14).
Various
studies conducted in Pakistani cities, such as Peshawar, Karachi, Islamabad,
and Chakshahzad have shown high levels of lead in student’s blood. In Karachi
98% of the children had blood’s lead level.
Several
European studies have indicated that 10 increased exposure causes daily
mortality rises by 0.35% and heart diseases by 0.4%(Miller K. A., Siscovick D. S. et al.
2007).
High NO2 causes reduced lung function growth. SO2 is the main component of acid rain which is
the main cause of acid rain.(J 2012)
5. Control measures for air pollution
5.1. Strengthening Monitoring of Air Quality
By
conducting a reliable air quality monitoring network that concentrates on air
pollutants as PM, SO2, NO2, and lead and different toxic
substances; by developing that network with JICA support (Timeframe is short
term)(Ali, Gazder et al. 2010).
By
developing an inventory of industrial sources that focuses on key pollutants
(Timeframe is short term).
By
establishing an inventory for detailed mobile source emissions (Timeframe is short).
By
establishing a centralized depository to review and analyze data collected from
the country by the network of monitoring air quality (timeframe is medium term)
By
conducting modeling efforts for determining the present and future participation
of stationary, mobile,nonpoint, and natural sources of main pollutants
(Timeframe is medium)(Imran 2009).
5.2. Reinforcing the Judicial and Regulatory
Framework for AQM
By
adopting pollution charges targeting fuels by their pollution contributors, conditioned
on the polluter pays principles (Timeframe is short).
By
establishing a more serious penalty system for non-compliance with air quality
regulations and laws (Timeframe is short)(Ebi, K.L. et al. 2008).
By
establishing higher fuel efficiency standards and environmental taxes for less
efficient vehicles (Timeframe is medium term).
By
adopting revised NEQS to ensure that the permissible ambient concentration of
all pollutant are consistent with levels recommended by the WHO (Timeframe is
medium term)(Majewski, Kleniewska et al. 2011; Massey, Kulshrestha et al. 2013).
By
adopting levels on hydrocarbons, based on their contribution to greenhouse gas
emissions (Timeframe is long term).
5.3. Policy Reforms and Investments for improving
Air Quality
By
minimizing fuel price distortion and applying the polluter pays principle to
enhance efficient fuel use and promoting towards gas and other cleaner fuels
(Timeframe is short).
By
improving fuel quality by importing cleaner diesel and furnace oil, using
low-sulfur crude oil and investing in refinery capacity for desulfurization
(Timeframe is short).
BY
increasing solid waste collection and paper disposal, in large urban areas
(Timeframe is short).
By
executing green-cut agriculture practices to minimize emission from non-point
sources (Timeframe is short).
By
initiating a vehicle inspection and maintenance program that initially targets
diesel trucks and buses, that focuses on Pakistan’s larger cities and
concentrating on controlling PM emissions (Timeframe is medium)
By
carrying out two-stroke vehicles in favor of four-stroke taking into account
experiences of other Asian countries (Timeframe is medium).
By
stressing on the use of catalytic converters for vehicles, for gasoline fueled
vehicles (Timeframe is medium).
By
publishing an Air Quality Index in major cities and issuing health alarms when
necessary (Timeframe is medium).
By
supporting development of mass transportation and non- motorized vehicles in
main cities (Timeframe is short).
By
controlling emission from industrial sources, especially from the emissions
from industrial sources, especially from the storage and transportation of
fuels and chemicals, as well as from high emission industrial processes (Timeframe
is medium)(Massey, Kulshrestha et al. 2012).
5.4. Filling Knowledge’s for AQM
By
carrying out an in-depth study to identify sources of pollution for lead and
other toxic substances for serving as a basis for the development of targeted
interventions (Timeframe is short).
By
conducting in-depth analysis of a potential scrap page program for old vehicles
(Timeframe is short).
By
promoting the establishment of research program inn universities having focus
on different areas of AQM, including laws, chemistry, economics and so forth
(Timeframe is short)(Naz and . 2011).
6. Conclusions
Information
obtained from different scientific journals and environment agencies have shown
that Pakistan is facing great threats of our pollution and its adverse effect
on health and climate. However little work has been down in this record. There
is still no ambient our quality standards in Pakistan. The studies have shown
that present levels of PM, SO, NO2, CO and PB are many times higher
the WHO air quality guidelines.
The
present state of our pollution calls for immediate steps to arrest the
situation. By following the guidelines given above, air pollution in Pakistan
can be controlled to a large extent.
7.
References
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PM10, PM5.0, PM2.5 & PM1.0 in indoor and outdoor environments of
residential homes located in North–Central India, Building and
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